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The Toltec Empire ,Palerm, A. (1997) Introducción a la teoría etnológica . Universidad Iberoamericana [1] Toltec Kingdom or Altepetl Tollan Ce-Acatl: Revista de la cultura Anáhuac (1991) was a political entity in pre-Hispanic Mexico. It existed through the classic and post-classic periods of Mesoamerican chronology, but gained most of its power in the post-classic. During this time its sphere of influence reached as far away as the Yucatan Peninsula.
The capital city of this empire was Tollan-Xicocotitlan,Cobean, R.H., Jimenez, G.E. & Mastache, A.G. (2016) Tula. Fondo de Cultura Economica [3] while other important cities included Tulancingo Tulancingo de Bravo. Enciclopedia de los Municipios y Delegaciones de México. [4] and Huapalcalco.
These narrations about the origin of the Toltecs have been disputed by archaeologists and historians like Manuel Gamio, Enrique FlorescanoFlorescano, E. (1963) Tula-Teotihuacán, Quetzalcóatl y la Toltecayótl. Historia Mexicana. vol. 13 (2) and Laurette Séjourné;Séjourné, L. (1994) Teotihuacan, capital de los Toltecas. Siglo XXI who had identified the Toltec city of Tollan with Teotihuacan, although this hypothesis has been criticized by many scholars, most notably historian Miguel León-Portilla. Leon-Portilla, M. (2008) Tula Xicocotitlan: Historia y Arqueologia
The dynastic history of the Toltecs was recorded by several pre-Columbian and Colonial sources, although there are contradictions in most of them. Some sources say that a man named HuemacAdams, R.E.W.(2005) Prehistoric Mesoamerica. University of Oklahoma Press [8] was the leader of the Toltecs when they arrived at Tula, while others begin the list of Toltec rulers, or tlatoani, with Chalchiutlanetzin, Mixcoamatzatzin, or even Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Tula y los Toltecas
Historians like Alfredo Chavero investigated the numerous proposed lists of Toltec rulers presented in the works of authors like Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl and Juan de Torquemada, and in anonymous sources like the Codex Chimalpopoca. According to Chavero, his research led him to conclude that most of the traditional recounts of the Toltec royalty are not reliable because they were recorded in a style similar to the medieval Chansons de geste, something that became evident once he realised that most of the reigns of the Toltec monarchs lasted 52 years, which is exactly the duration of the 52 year-long cycle of the Mesoamerican calendars, known in nahuatl as Xiuhmolpilli. Therefore, Chavero concluded, that most of the traditional Toltec royal accounts and exploits must be legendary in nature.
According to one of those legends, during the reign of Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin, a Toltec man named Papantzin invented a type of fermented syrup made from the Agave americana plant. He sent his daughter Xochitl with a bowl of the fermented syrup, today known as pulque, as a gift for the Tlatoani of the Toltecs (in some versions Papantzin would go along with Xochitl). Tecpancaltzin fell in love with the messenger, who kept coming with more bowls of pulque from time to time. After some more visits, the tlatoani granted lands and nobility status to Papantzin, and eventually married Xochitl, who would give birth to a boy named Meconetzin ( Child of the Maguey in nahuatl), who became prince of Tollan.Remolina, L.M.T. (2004) Leyendas de la provincia mexicana: Zona Altiplano [10]
Between 900 and 950,Fash, W.L., & Lyons, M.E. (2005) The Ancient American World. Oxford University Press [11] Tollan underwent a major urban redevelopment as the original urban center, today known as Tula Chico (Little Tula), was largely abandoned in favor of a new district, where most of the main religious and political buildings, like the Palacio Quemado (Burnt Palace), were eventually located. This new district is today known as Tula Grande (Great Tula).Kristan-Graham, C. (2007) Twin Tollans: Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World. Dumbarton Oaks [12] Also by this time, Tollan had become a magnet for migrants from the surrounding areas, giving the city a large and ethnically diverse population, with the Nonoalca and Chichimeca being the most important groups in the city.
Quetzalcoatl was regarded as a wise and benevolent ruler, who made Tollan a "prosperous city in which their inhabitants -the Toltecs- were endowed with great qualities".Olivier, G. (2012) Los dioses ebrios del México antiguo. De la transgresión a la inmortalidad. Arqueología Mexicana At the same time he was regarded as a holy and pious man, who engaged regularly in acts of penance. Cē Ācatl Topiltzin preached against the practice of , arguing that the Quetzalcoatl wasn't pleased with the practice of ritual killings.León-Portilla, M. (2003) En torno a la historia de Mesoamérica. UNAM [14]
According to Bernardino de Sahagún,Sahagún, B. (ca. 1540) Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España [15] one day, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was visited by an elderly man (said to be Tezcatlipoca in disguise) who offered him a "medicine" that would make him younger. This medicine was just a bowl of pulque, and after tasting it, the king invited his sister, the priestess Quetzalpetlatl, to drink with him, with both getting drunk soon after.Navarrete, L.F. & Olivier, G. (2000) El héroe entre el mito y la historia [16] Because of their drunkenness, both siblings forgot their sacred duties and acted disgracefully, damaging their reputations. After this humiliation, Quetzalcoatl left Tollan in 947, and traveled to the east, to the mythical land of Tlapallan, which according to tradition was located on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. There, Quetzalcoatl took a canoe and immolated himself.
According to Diego Durán, the conflict was brief, but eventually a second war between the two groups broke out. This war lasted from 1046 to 1110, and ended with the defeat of the followers of Quetzalcoatl. Because of the violence, many of those who supported Ce Acatl Topiltzin fled Tollan, with a sizeable portion of these exiles heading towards the Maya cultural area. According to Mexican archaeologist Román Piña Chan, the cult of Quetzalcoatl (known as Kukulkan in Yucatan) was introduced in the region by the Itza people around 987 AD.Piña-Chan. R (2016) Chichén Itzá: La ciudad de los brujos del agua. Fondo de Cultura Economica [20] The Itza were a group of mixed Putún Maya and Toltec descent, which had welcomed immigrants from Tollan time moving into the Yucatán Peninsula, and had adopted the religious teachings of the Toltecs.
As they traveled southwards, some followers of Ce Acatl Topiltzin seem to have followed his example and adopted the name "Quetzalcoatl" and its Maya equivalents, "Kukulkan" and "Q'uq'umatz", for themselves.Rodriguez, A.M. (2008) Los toltecas influyeron en la cultura maya: León-Portilla. La Jornada [21] According to Mexican historian Miguel León-Portilla, these new "Quetzalcoatl" leaders often led their own followers into military actions against the Mayan peoples. The exploits of these personages had become source of misunderstandings and confusion for researchers over centuries, as they are often confused with Ce Acatl Topiltzin himself.
According to Durán, in 1115, tribes from the north (probably , Otomi or Huastec people) attacked the domains of Tollan. After a series of brutal battles at the villages of Nextalpan and Texcalapan, in which both sides took and sacrificed numerous prisoners, the Toltecs were defeated in 1116. After this defeat, Huemac, the priest-king of Tollan, abandoned the city along with other Toltecs and headed south, to the city of Xaltocan, in the Valley of Mexico. Soon, the king would be abandoned by his closest followers, who chose a man called Nauhyotl as their leader; while the majority of the Toltecs would split in smaller groups and begin their diaspora across Mesoamerica.
In 1122, shortly after being betrayed by his followers, Huemac hanged himself in Chapultepec, and by 1150, Tula was virtually abandoned. Some Toltecs would remain around the ruins of their former capital, where they would be under the rule of Culhuacán, a nearby city-state. After the fall and abandonment of Tollan in the 12th century, the former Toltec dominions would be ruled by numerous smaller city-states, which are known as altepetl in nahuatl, most of which would be ruled by descendants (both real and self-proclaimed) of the Toltec nobility. Toltec heritage became the standard of the nobility in most of Mesoamerica. Because of this, many rulers of later kingdoms and empires would claim Toltec lineage as a way to legitimize their power,León-Portilla, M. (2002) América Latina en la época colonial. Grupo Planeta [22] including the Aztec emperors, the Mixtec kings in Oaxaca, and the K'iche' and Kaqchikel people rulers in Guatemala.León-Portilla, M. (2016) Toltecáyotl: Aspectos de la cultura náhuatl. Fondo de Cultura Economica [23]
According to Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, these would be the Toltec rulers:Bernal, I., Ekholm, G.F. & Wauchope, R. (1971) Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volumes 10 and 11: Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica [24]
According to the author of the Anónimo Mexicano, all but one of the rulers of Tollan ruled for 52 years, and the only exception had instead produced a council interregnum after her short rule. Thus, the author names the following Toltec rulers:
Francisco Javier Clavijero provides a very similar list, modifying only the starting and ending years and using Ixtlilxochitl's version of the Anónimo's names, while using an alternative name for the final ruler:
According to the Anales de Cuauhtitlan, these would be the Toltec rulers, though alternative periods may be attained by adding a calendar cycle of 52 years to each date:
The Memorial Breve mentions only two Toltec rulers, and makes little note of the first one:
The monumental Atlanteans are at the top of the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecutli (also called "Morning Star"), wherefrom which all the main plaza can be seen; these sculptures are characterized by their large size and detail.
The conquest hypothesis of Charnay and Spinden has been largely abandoned in modern archaeology as more evidence suggests that instead of a conquest of Chichen Itza by the Toltecs, the Itza people had already embraced Toltec teachings before moving to Yucatan; also, according to Mexican historian Miguel León-Portilla, many of the references to leaders with the name "Quetzalcoatl", "Kukulkan" or "Q'uq'umatz" in the Maya sources may not even refer to Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl himself, but to some of his followers and their disciples who also took the name of the Feathered Serpent deity for themselves.
The city of Chupícuaro was inhabited between 800 BCE and 1200 CE.
Chupícuaro developed in a vast territory in, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Guerrero, Mexico State, Hidalgo, Colima, Nayarit, Querétaro and Zacatecas.
The upper ranks of the Toltec army wore cotton armor, heavily padded to deflect enemy, arrows and spears, with breastplates, in the form of coyotes, jaguars or eagles if the warrior belonged to the order of one of these animal totems. A round shield was carried into battle, and the swords were fastened with belts. A short kilt protected the lower half of the torso, and the legs and ankles were covered with sandals and straps. Quetzal plumes decorated warriors' helmets, and skins, plumage and other materials probably were used as emblems of the particular god or order that they served. The fact that the warriors depicted wore nose ornaments indicates that they were of noble rank. Some of the warriors wore beards.
Rulers
List of rulers
Pre-Columbian and Colonial documents describe the Toltec rulers, but most of those accounts are legendary in nature, and therefore not historically reliable. Some lists include figures such as Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and queen Xochitl as rulers, but most of them omit them.
667-719 719-771 771-823 823-875 875-927 927-979 979-983 983-1031 1031–1063 701-767 767-782 783–821 822–844 844–880 880–895 896-924 925-947 948–1023 Son of Totepeuh, king of Colhuacan Tollan is said to fallen into unrest in 1036, while its subjects had mostly abandoned it and dispersed by 1040. Said to have gone " through the place where the sun rises; ... to have gone to the place of smoke, to the place of colors"
Society
Slavery
The status of slaves in the Toltec world is not well-documented. It is known, however, that the Huastec people and others were carried weeping into Tula, possibly as victims for sacrificial ceremonies or as doomed chattel.
Art
Architecture
Most of Tula was set up in a grid plan. The buildings were made of stone with an adobe finish. The Atlantes of Tula are representations of the god Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli in warrior attire which were used as columns to hold up the roof of the great room in the god's temple.Martínez del Río, Pablo y Acosta, Jorge R. (1957) Tula: guía oficial. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia de México. 54 páginas
Sculpture
Some of the most famous Toltec sculptures are the Atlanteans of Tula. These monoliths measure just over 4.5 meters high. They are carved in stone basalt, and are representations of the Toltec god Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli in warrior attire. They are clothed in butterfly breastplates. Their weapons are , darts, knives of flint, and curved weapon that are characteristic of the warrior representations in the Toltec culture.
International relations
Totonacapan
The Toltecs founded colonies in Veracruz.
Maya region
Chichen Itza
One of the most controversial topics involving the Toltecs is what their relationship with Chichen Itza was. The similarities between the two cities has raised several hypotheses about the nature of the links between the two, although none of them have the full support of the specialists in the field. In the 19th century, French archaeologist Désiré Charnay was the first person who pointed out that the main plazas of Tula and Chichen Itza were similar, a fact that led him to postulate that the city could have been conquered by Toltecs led by Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, who Charnay referred as Kukulkan.Charnay, D. (1885) La Civilisation Tolteque. Revue d'Ethnographie. vol. 4 This hypothesis was defended in the 20th century by Herbert Joseph Spinden, an art historian who became obsessed with the idea and often used pseudo-historical sources to back his claim about a conquest of the Itza Maya by Quetzalcoatl.Spinden, H.J. (1913) A Study of Maya Art, Its Subject Matter and Historical Development. Courier Corporation [26]
Rest of Yucatan
Chichen Itza would eventually become the largest city in Yucatan with a population of at least 50,000 people.
Almost as many people as lived in Coba during the classic period.
In the mid-eighth century,Demarest, A.A. & Rice, D.S. (2005) The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation. University Press of Colorado the Classic Maya civilization began to collapse. Around 925, about the same the time in which the Toltecs began to migrate to the Maya area, most of the major Maya cities in the Yucatán Peninsula had already been abandoned due to food shortages and peasant revoltsBley, B. (2011) The Ancient Maya and Their City of Tulum: Uncovering the Mysteries of an Ancient Civilization and Their City of Grandeur [27] Some Maya cities in the Yucatan peninsula at the time were:
Chupícuaro
The Chupícuaro culture was important due to the influence it had in the area. It is possible it spread to southern United States around 500 BCE. There are theories that the first Guanajuato inhabitants belonged to this culture."Historia prehispánica" Prehispanic. León-Gto. Retrieved October 2010.
Warfare
The Toltec were skilled in battle, ferocious and highly trained. A standing army, garrisons, forts and reserve units comprised a formidable weapon against inhabitants of regions coveted by the Toltec and against enemies. Because of their skill and their bravery in battle, the Toltec were able to instill enough awe and respect among their neighbors that cities such as Tula could be built without heavy defenses incorporated into their design.
Coyote, Jaguar, and eagle were some of the higher ranks of the Toltec military.
Bibliography
Notes
Categories: 496 Establishments, 1122 Disestablishments, 12th-century Disestablishments In North America, Former Confederations, Former Countries In North America, Former Empires In North America, Mesoamerican Politics, Mesoamerican Cultures, Pre-columbian Cultures Of Mexico, States And Territories Established In The 490s, States And Territories Disestablished In The 1120s, Geography Of Mesoamerica
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